Introducing Buddhism (some basic concepts)

(Note: diacritics are generally omitted throughout the site)

The term Buddhism is the western equivalent of the phrase "Buddha-Dharma", an expression that is used more widely in countries where it has long been established. Buddha-Dharma refers to the teachings of the Buddha, ‘The Awakened One'.

Essentially the Buddha's efforts were directed towards explaining a method that he had discovered (or more accurately - rediscovered) for gaining liberation from suffering through the attainment of Enlightenment.

These discourses are not based on divine revelation, nor are they philosophical theorising, nor a set of beliefs or views. They represent an attempt on the part of the Buddha (and his enlightened followers) to describe their direct experience. This experience necessarily has to be conceptualised in order for it to be communicated in the form of language - but such an exposition does not directly convey the nature of the insight; this can only be successfully "realised" by each person undergoing the experience for him- or herself. So the exploration of Buddhism is necessarily an exploration of an applied practice rather than an examination of a theoretical exercise.

However one has to start somewhere and since it is proposed that the world is "mind made" we shall start with ideas and proceed from that point onwards.

There are three main components to Buddhism (collectively known as the Three Jewels), and these are as follows:

1) The Buddha
2) The Dharma
3) The Sangha

It is traditional for one who claims to be a Buddhist (or a follower of the Buddha's path) to "Go for Refuge" to these Three Jewels. This means that such an individual has made, to some degree, a commitment to follow the path that the Buddha and his enlightened follows have indicated in their teachings. The first of these Jewels is the Buddha himself, the perfect embodiment of the teaching and the unparalleled exemplar of both the goal and the path. The second, the Dharma, refers primarily to his discourses as conveyed both by living example, and by traditional oral and (subsequently) written lectures (sutras). Finally, the third Jewel, the Sangha, refers to the assembly of those who refer to themselves as Buddhists.

So, in slightly more detail:

The Buddha

The term "Buddha" is a title, and refers in translation to "The Awakened One" or "The Enlightened One". Born Siddhartha Gautama (Sanskrit; Siddhattha Gotama, Pali) it was he who was to become the Buddha. Gautama is the clan name of his family. He is the founder of what is known in the West as Buddhism. He is also regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Sammasambuddha) of this present age. It is generally considered that his birth date falls somewhere between 563 BCE to 483 BCE (Before Common Era). He is also known by the title "Sakyamuni" or "Shakyamuni" ("sage of the Shakyas").

He was born in Lumbini in the district of Kapilavastu in what is now modern day Nepal. His father was King Suddhodana and his mother Queen Mayadevi who, according to various accounts, died shortly after his birth. Subsequently he was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.

According to tradition he married his cousin Yasodhara at the age of sixteen, and she subsequently bore him a son, Rahula. He remained in this married state until the age of twenty-nine. Then, as a result of the "Four Sights", he concluded to leave the life of a "householder" and "go forth" as a wandering ascetic.

He subsequently encountered two teachers under whom he made rapid progress in meditative abilities to the extent that he superseded both of these instructors. But he was not satisfied that the higher states of consciousness that he achieved were the ultimate goal of these efforts.

He went on to practise severe austerities in an attempt to make further progress but eventually recognised that such acts were simply forcing him towards ill health and a premature death. He then recalled an experience he had had as a child when he had quite involuntarily developed a higher state of consciousness. He thus resolved to abandon these ascetic practices, and instead follow his own insight derived from that earlier experience.

At Bodh Gaya beneath the Bodhi tree, and at the age of 35, he proceeded to engage in an intense meditative effort, and subsequently attained Supreme Enlightenment. There followed a period of some weeks in which he absorbed the full impact of this profound awakening.

This experience in itself is ineffable, and thus beyond the scope of conceptually based language to define, and initially this obstacle to communication delayed the Buddha's decision to present his awakening to those who might be receptive. However, he concluded that there might be some individuals who would be able to comprehend the truth behind his words, realise it, and thus also achieve Awakening. Over the course of the next forty-five years the Buddha travelled the countryside preaching the Way to the liberation from all suffering. These teachings have been recorded within the various canonical traditions as a means by which others might similarly realise their own Enlightenment.

Finally, at the age of eighty years, the Buddha arrived at the deathless state (parinirvana) and his physical body died. His final words were: "All composite things pass away. Strive for your own liberation with diligence."

The Dharma

The term "dharma" has a number of meanings but is mainly used with reference to the teachings of the Buddha and his Enlightened disciples. It can, however, also include the instruction, interpretation and application of the original teachings by subsequent followers.

The Sangha

The term "sangha" refers to the "community" of Buddhists. Traditionally it can be divided into the "monastic sangha", which is the community of ordained monks and nuns in the various traditions who have committed themselves to live by a set of precepts of varying rigour for an indeterminate period of time. They are to be distinguished from the "lay sangha", which is composed of those who are sometimes referred to as "householders", and who have not made the same degree of formal commitment, and are largely involved in what would be termed a "worldly" life. These latter do generally observe a set of five precepts, which may be considered as a minimum level of observance of Buddhist principles.

Alternatively the "sangha" may be divided into two sections according to different criteria. These are the "Arya Sangha" or "Noble Sangha", which is composed of all those who have reached a certain level of meditative realisation; the second "sangha" is comprised of those who have not.

Now we come to the earliest known presentation of the core of the Buddha's experience which he presented to some of his earliest followers.

The Four Noble Truths

The Buddha's first known discourse after his Enlightenment was the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta ("Setting in Motion the Wheel of the Dhamma") in which he analyses the nature of the problem of suffering, and its solution. These are summarised as the Four Noble Truths:

1) The fact of suffering

"This is the noble truth of suffering: birth is suffering, aging is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering; union with what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering."

2) The origin of suffering

"This is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and there, that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination."

3) The cessation of suffering

"This is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it is the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, nonreliance on it."

4) The way to the cessation of suffering

"This is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: it is the Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration."

(Quotes from the aforementioned sutra)

(The term "suffering" is frequently replaced by "unsatisfactoriness" which is more accurate in many respects. This latter suggests that suffering does not have to be of an extreme degree; it can be quite subtle in its manifestations.

Before continuing we shall briefly consider the concept of faith and its role in Buddhist practice.

Faith, as distinguished from blind faith, is considered a necessary prerequisite for making progress along the path described by the Buddha. We refer you to a well-known sutra from the Pali Canon, the one addressed to the Kalamas and specifically:

"The Kalamas of Kesaputta ask for guidance from the Buddha

3. The Kalamas who were inhabitants of Kesaputta sitting on one side said to the Blessed One: "There are some monks and brahmans, venerable sir, who visit Kesaputta. They expound and explain only their own doctrines; the doctrines of others they despise, revile, and pull to pieces. Some other monks and brahmans too, venerable sir, come to Kesaputta. They also expound and explain only their own doctrines; the doctrines of others they despise, revile, and pull to pieces. Venerable sir, there is doubt, there is uncertainty in us concerning them. Which of these reverend monks and brahmans spoke the truth and which falsehood?"

"The criterion for rejection

4. "It is proper for you, Kalamas, to doubt, to be uncertain; uncertainty has arisen in you about what is doubtful. Come, Kalamas. Do not go upon what has been acquired by repeated hearing; nor upon tradition; nor upon rumour; nor upon what is in a scripture; nor upon surmise; nor upon an axiom; nor upon specious reasoning; nor upon a bias towards a notion that has been pondered over; nor upon another's seeming ability; nor upon the consideration, 'The monk is our teacher.' Kalamas, when you yourselves know: 'These things are bad; these things are blameable; these things are censured by the wise; undertaken and observed, these things lead to harm and ill,' abandon them."

"The criterion for acceptance

10. "Come, Kalamas. Do not go upon what has been acquired by repeated hearing; nor upon tradition; nor upon rumour; nor upon what is in a scripture; nor upon surmise; nor upon an axiom; nor upon specious reasoning; nor upon a bias towards a notion that has been pondered over; nor upon another's seeming ability; nor upon the consideration, 'The monk is our teacher.' Kalamas, when you yourselves know: 'These things are good; these things are not blameable; these things are praised by the wise; undertaken and observed, these things lead to benefit and happiness,' enter on and abide in them."

From this it can be seen that doubt is a legitimate (and natural) reaction to the unknown. What is of key importance is our response to this condition. One may simply brush the doubt aside, and rely upon one of the bases indicated in the quote; or one may make one's own determinations on these issues by the means identified by the Buddha i.e. as far as possible one should investigate the truth (or otherwise) of such questions by direct investigation, and thus derive the consequent experience. However, it should be noted that there is also reference to "these things are "censured" (or "praised)" by the wise. So according to this one may rely not only upon one's own examinations but also on the reports of others - the wise.

We would argue that preceding every new experience there is necessarily a period during which there is a relative lack of knowledge. Indeed we are unlikely to examine something that we are already quite sure that we understand.

Therefore a gap between ignorance and knowledge exists, and the question arises: what is it that will incline us to bridge that gap? A number of factors will influence us e.g. curiosity, self-interest, pride, fear etc. We would suggest that one of the necessary adjuncts to traversing this divide is faith.

To take a concrete and simple example: we decide to sit down on a chair. We have sat upon this chair many times before and it has never failed to support us in the past. On that basis we expect that we shall be quite safe if we place our weight upon it now. Furthermore, from the evidence of our senses it seems to be in good condition, or at least its observable qualities have not varied significantly from the last time we sat upon it. If we are of an unusually cautious nature we might test its supportive properties with our hands before actually resting our full weight upon it. Of course none of this absolutely guarantees that we will be totally safe to trust this piece of furniture. However it seems to be relatively a good bet that we will come to no harm.

When it comes to questions concerning the less tangible, and those of greater moment such as the nature of reality, we will likely be correspondingly diffident in respect to setting out on such a venture, and committing ourselves to a system of practice that may make many demands upon us.

So it may be that this is our frame of mind, of doubt, when we encounter the Four Noble Truths, or for that matter, any Buddhist teaching.

Now we shall consider the Truths themselves:

If the First Noble Truth is considered carefully it should be apparent that suffering is associated with every experience that we might have (there is a reference to the "five aggregates" in the above quotations. These are the components of what in Buddhism is frequently referred to as "conditioned existence"; or what may be described as the "phenomenal world" as we experience it. The five aggregates are: form, feeling, perception, volition and consciousness).

Now here is something that we are easily able to test against our own experience. We do not need to rely upon another's report to verify, or falsify, this statement. We should at this point consider the word "clinging" from the above quote. We habitually get attached to things whether they are of material or mental form. Indeed, it might be argued that all our perceptual and conceptual relationships are with things of a mental form, and it is the "idea" in its broadest sense to which we become attached. Alternatively our attachment may be considered in its converse aspect i.e. an aversion; that is to be placed in proximity to things that cause us unhappiness, and from which we wish to be removed. So we should examine this statement carefully, compare it with our own experience, and draw our own conclusions. If we find it to be false then we can quite reasonably conclude that his assessment is inaccurate, or if not so, that it does not correspond with our own experience of the world, and therefore we need pay no further heed to his analysis. However, if we find it to be true, even though this might be rather unsettling, then we have established at least one thing; that his representation of our condition is accurate, and that he may be relied upon at least in this respect.

Next we come to the Second Noble Truth; "The origin of suffering".

Again the Buddha makes an explicit statement on this subject. He states that the origin of this suffering (which we have already examined under the First Noble Truth) is craving. Now again this is something that relates to our own everyday experience of the "conditioned" or "phenomenal" world. All that remains to be done is to examine the evidence, and draw our own conclusions. Is what he says true in relation to our own experience? Or is it false? If the latter then we may grant him the First Noble Truth but not the Second, and we may conclude that at this point his perspective of the world diverges from our own, and we therefore should no longer rely upon his analysis. Or it may be that after careful examination of this statement we conclude that his assessment is indeed accurate, and we now have a further basis to rely upon what he reports; we can have a degree of faith or confidence in what he says.

Now we come to the Third Noble Truth: "the cessation of suffering". This simply and logically follows on from the first two truths. If the origin of suffering, or the cause of suffering, is craving, and if we can remove this desire, this craving (or its negative counterpart - aversion) from our psyche in some way, then we will suffer no more. It is a logical statement, and does not really require dependence upon our own experience or indeed the Buddha's; its basis is that of reason.

Finally we come to the Fourth Noble Truth and, from our point of view, the most problematic: "The way to the cessation of suffering" or the Noble Eightfold Path. Here we are presented with the essence of the Buddha's solution to the problem of suffering. If we have agreed with the first two Noble Truths, and have accepted the logic of the Third Noble Truth, then we have now to consider the way out of this situation which he has outlined. If we have proceeded so far in our investigation it may be that we are inclined to the view that he has proven to be a reliable reporter. But here we are moving into the realm of the unknown. The Buddha describes the Noble Eightfold Path, and he explains that this is the Path that should be followed in order to free ourselves from suffering. Of course we are human beings and are not motivated purely by rational argument. Even though we may agree with the statements presented thus far we may still conclude that life is not after all that uncomfortable, and we are not at all sure that we wish to exert ourselves greatly in pursuit of this "liberation". Strangely, inertia is a remarkably powerful force, and in concert with procrastination we can convince ourselves that today is not the day to investigate this further; maybe tomorrow. However, it could be that we find the Buddha's analysis compelling, and furthermore we have developed a degree of faith in what he says, and to such an extent that we are prepared to proceed further; but only by degree, and with a provisional assent to his proposed solution.

At no point in this process so far have we proceeded other than by direct investigation of the information presented, and our subsequent confirmation of it. But when we come to the Noble Eightfold Path then to some extent we have to rely upon the faith that we have developed so far to motivate us to take the next step. If it turns out that this solution is indeed effective then we will have further grounds for relying upon the words of the "wise".

The Noble Eightfold Path

The Fourth Noble Truth refers to "The way to the cessation of suffering" and this is contained in the Noble Eightfold Path:

Its "stages" or "limbs" are as follows (and further categorised under three main headings):

A) Wisdom (Skt. prajna; Pali. panna)

1) Right view

Right view or right understanding is the preliminary condition, the seeds of which may serve as the initial momentum to set out upon the Buddhist path or, at least, to consider it seriously. There may be, for example, some intimation of the generally less than happy condition of humanity, not to say of that particular individual, or perhaps some notion that much of life is governed by a self-centred perspective, and of an impulse largely governed by self-interest even when apparently acting in accordance with altruistic motives. These forerunners of wisdom can acquire more weight and more clarity on encountering Buddhist teachings, and thus the novice can commence to create a conceptual framework within which they can gain a deeper understanding of theirs, and the human condition. This comprehension is then gradually developed, deepened and realised progressively, as the student proceeds with their reflection upon these truths. Thus the mind becomes clearer, delusions are swept away, dogma and prejudice are replaced with rationality and clear conception, progressively penetrating through ever more subtle levels of delusion until finally even these are deracinated, and complete liberation from ignorance is achieved.

2) Right intention

Right intention or right resolve constitute the willingness to change. At this stage a sufficiently sound grasp of Buddhist principles has been established to enable the individual to apply themselves to the process of self transformation. They have some idea of what they are up against, what qualities they need to develop, and what deficiencies they need to rid themselves of. They have an understanding of the basis of moral behaviour, and the consequences (good or bad) of applying that knowledge.

B) Ethics (Skt. Pali. sila)

3) Right speech

Right speech refers evidently to our communication with others. The fundamental basis of the Buddhist moral code is to abstain from harming others. Generally we speak badly (unskilfully) usually to further our own ends, and/or to undermine the ability of others to care for their own welfare. Right speech can be described in its negative formulation as refraining from lying, slander, abusive language (including gross words, eg. swearing, obscenities), and purposeless communication.

4) Right action

Right action is to physical conduct as the speech precept is to verbal communication. Again, and in its primarily negative formulation, it may be divided into subcategories; ie. not to take life, not to steal, and not to engage in sexual misconduct. It is worth noting here that there are no qualifications when it comes to "not taking life", and thus can be interpreted more widely to include the lives of animals. Similarly the injunction not to steal can be extended beyond the mere breach of another person's physical property rights, and may be applied to, for example, the notion of not taking someone's else peace of mind, which equally may be regarded as a form of "theft". The issue of what constitutes sexual misconduct may vary from person to person, as indeed between different societies or different cultures, and at differing periods in history. However the key factor is whether this conduct will cause "harm" as experienced by the person who is the object of this misconduct, those with whom they may be involved, as well as the effect it may have upon person instituting the misconduct.

5) Right livelihood

This refers to the various activities in which people engage to support themselves (and their families). Again the fundamental principle is that whatever occupation is undertaken it should not cause harm to other sentient beings (both directly and indirectly). This precept can be broken down under five main sections. ie. dealing in: weapons; people (slavery, prostitution); animals for butchery (and indeed their butchery); poisons (slightly archaic now but still unskilful); and finally intoxicants (drugs and alcohol, and most relevant these days). Other trades are included but these all relate to breaking other precepts eg. harming others through speech. For example, those engaged in the advertising industry (specifically in "persuasive" or "promotional" advertising) may fall under the category of being engaged in a trade that is unskilful ie. they are seeking to create a "want" or "need" for an unnecessary product or service, which may also be characterised as fostering "craving".

C) Concentration (Skt. Pali. samadhi)

6) Right effort

It is clear that seeking to put these precepts into effect requires some effort. Essentially the individual is attempting to abandon all conduct that brings about harm, and simultaneously striving to replace this with correspondingly good or skilful habits. Four stages are identified to give some structure to this endeavour:
The four stages are:

i) to prevent the arising of unskilfulness;
ii) to eradicate the unskilfulness that has arisen;
iii) to cultivate the skilful that has not yet arisen;
iv) to maintain the skilful that has arisen.

7) Right mindfulness

Right mindfulness refers to the need for each person to seek to remain alert and aware of all that takes place in both mind and body, and in the present eg. to avoid daydreaming, idle speculation on the future, or futile "post mortes" on the past. Each should try to remain attentive to their present condition (not forgetting the circumstances of others) without becoming so immersed in the experience as to become lost, nor so detached that this leads to a form of alienation. Such mindfulness should conduce towards a more effective observance of those precepts relating to moral conduct, and should also prevent unskilful actions which, though unintentional, may be attributed to carelessness or inattention. Thus consciousness is present IN and OF the present, and is tranquil, alert, open, and balanced in its contemplation.

8) Right concentration

Right concentration refers to a stage in the development of focussed mental states. Here the individual brings their attention to bear upon a single object until a degree of meditative absorption has been cultivated. When this has been achieved it is then possible to develop progressively deeper degrees of insight which will finally allow the meditator to develop some cognition of the nature of reality. This breaching of the veil of ignorance which surrounds the mind evolves into a transformation of the psyche to a point where the "Dharma mind" is activated, culminating in "Awakening" or "Enlightenment", and final and complete liberation from conditioned existence.

Wisdom is the ability to see and experience things as they really are as opposed to the condition of ignorance which presents reality as we believe it to be.

Ethics refers to the practice of non-violence in thought, word and deed towards both ourselves and all other sentient beings.

Concentration refers to the methods that we employ in order to calm the mind in preparation for the arising of insight, which will in turn finally lead to the realisation of wisdom.

The Middle Way

The following quote indicates the principle

"Bhikkhus, these two extremes should not be followed by one gone forth (into the homeless life). What two? That which is this pursuit of sensual happiness in sense pleasures, which is low, vulgar, the way of the ordinary person, ignoble, not connected to the goal; and that which is this pursuit of self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, not connected to the goal. Bhikkhus, without veering towards either of these two extremes, the One Who Moves in Reality has awakened to the middle way, which gives rise to vision, which gives rise to knowledge, which leads to peace, to higher knowledge, to full awakening, to Nibbāna."

From: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta - The Discourse on the Setting in Motion of the Wheel (of Vision) of the Basic Pattern: the Four Realities for the Noble One(s) - Translated from the Pali by Peter Harvey Samyutta Nikaya 56.11

This principle suggests that it is inadvisable to proceed by extremes in following the Buddhist path, and also that holding views which support antithetical argument may similary prove to be unfruitful.

The Three Characteristics of Conditioned Existence

1) Unsatisfactoriness (dukkha - Pali; duhkha - Sanskrit): the concept that all conditioned things (phenomena) can provide no lasting satisfaction. This state of uneasiness can refer to suffering (a frequent though not entirely accurate translation of the term) but also includes such states as worry, anxiety, pain, discomfort, stress and misery. Even when we do experience a degree of pleasure, happiness or satisfaction in our lives we are burdened with the knowledge that this will rapidly dissolve, and thereafter we are driven again on our quest to retrieve that evanescent state.

2) Impermanence (anicca P. anitya S.): the concept that all phenomena are in a state of constant flux. Nothing that has its existence within the conditioned realm is fixed and immutable. This concept is clearly mutually dependent on the others as they are to it.

3) Insubstantiality (anatta P. anatman S.): the concept that all phenomena lack an abiding substance which remains immutable such as a self, soul, spirit, identity etc. In the case of a person this "essence" might be considered under the guise of selfhood or "I"ness but clearly, if it is the case that all phenomena are mutable, and that they may be analysed in terms of their components, then none of these are fixed, all are immutable and therefore there is nothing left that can be said to constitute this unchangeable essence. Therefore such notions as "identity" or "substance" are purely instrumental means to denote a particular state at a certain time; they cannot be regarded as a "reality" in themselves.

Dependent Origination (paticcasamuppada P. pratityasamutpada S.)

Ignorance (avidya)
Formations (samskara)
Consciousness (vijnana)
Name and form (namarupa)
Senses (sadayatana)
Contact (sparsa)
Feeling (vedana)
Craving (trsna)
Grasping (upadana)
Becoming (bhava)
Birth (jati)
Old age and death (jaramarana)

"Transcendental" dependent arising (source: the Upanisa Sutta - from the Samyutta Nikaya - Pali Canon)

Suffering (dukkha)
Faith (saddha)
Joy (pamojja
Rapture (piti)
Tranquillity (passaddhi)
Happiness (sukha)
Concentration (samadhi)
Knowledge and vision of things as they are (yathabhuta-nana-dassana)
Disenchantment with worldly life (nibbida)
Dispassion (viraga)
Freedom, release, emancipation, deliverance (vimutti)
Knowledge of destruction of the cankers (asava-khaye-nana)

Karma

This term refers popularly to the notion of some form of moral equilibrium existing in the universe that is not dependent on the notion of an all- powerful divine being dispensing justice. According to this principle bad actions (whether in thought, speech or physical acts) will be followed inevitably by bad consequences for the perpetrator, and conversely good followed by good. The terms "skilful" and "unskilful" are more commonly employed in Buddhist parlance in place of "good" and "bad".

Samsara

This Buddhist term refers to the concept of "conditioned existence" which applies to the world of phenomena and our unenlightened experience of them.

The Wheel of Becoming

A pictorial representation of "conditioned existence" or samsara suggesting a range of differing states that sentient beings might occupy. These states or "realms" may be considered as both objectively existing and/or as symbolically representing varying psychological/emotional phases which sentient beings will experience successively within their everyday lives.

Rebecoming or rebirth

It would be inaccurate to say that Buddhists assert the truth of reincarnation ie. the notion that there is a singular consciousness embodied sequentially in a series of physical forms, a consciousness that transfers, as it were, from one physical entity to another, and from one life-time to the next. Similarly the term "rebirth" presents a somewhat static notion of what is essentially a continuously and ceaselessly flowing motion of compounded states, coming into, and then passing out of, existence. Since all phenomena are considered to be lacking in permanence, and furthermore that all things are aggregated, then there is no ONE thing that can be said to abide constantly, and therefore no ONE thing to be reborn. Hence the expression rebecoming gives a much more accurate sense of the transient nature of conditioned phenomena, for samsara by its nature is NOTHING but a dynamic process, with NOTHING persistently substantial at its core.

Nirvana

The final goal of each Buddhist, and of such a sublime state that nothing, including its very existence, can be predicated of it. It is ineffable but it has been described as being permanent, substantial, free from from suffering, and beautiful - in other words it is of a nature contrary to our everyday experience. Generally when any attempt is made to describe it it is usually in terms of a series of negations, not necessarily suggesting that it is a pure absence, but rather that nothing can truly be asserted of it without such statements leading to a miscomprehension; for this reason we will stop right here on the matter.

Mindfulness

A condition where the individual endeavours to live fully within each moment rather than being caught up in the whirlpool of thoughts and feelings that usually dominate and distract our minds. It is not simply a condition of awareness, but of recollection, of remembering our actual being as it is right now, rather than as it was, or might be, or how we would wish it to be; simply accepting the present, good and bad, is part of the discipline to be practised. The state of concentration achieved in meditation practice is simply an intense unwilful effort directed towards cultivating mental states which reside presently, an effort which can be maintained during the rest of one's daily activities without exception.

The Four Bases of Mindfulness

As a support in developing mindfulness there are suggested four foci for refinement of this ability:

1) body
2) feeling
3) mental states
4) mental objects

One of these objects may be selected and observed, and the attention concentrated upon that aspect of being, and by this means the mind may be restrained from its customarily distracted condition, if only for the duration of the practice. The purpose is to persist with this mental training until such time as the flow of mental events follows a more regular course, thus permitting a degree of concentration to be developed.

Meditation

This term is used to cover both concentration and insight practices, the former a necessary condition for any significant progress to be made in the latter.

1) Samatha (concentration)

This refers to the development of mental concentration in part developed by the general practice of mindfulness in one's life (as outlined above), but the discipline more rigorously applied for specific periods of time whilst remaining immobile (with the obvious exception of the walking practice) in one of the four positions: ie sitting, standing, walking or lying down. Most frequently this practice is associated with sitting meditation where the practitioner remains motionless whilst he/she fixes their attention upon a single object of meditation. One of the commonest practices associated with this is "mindfulness of breathing" where, as the title indicates, the meditator brings and holds their attention upon the breathing process whilst progressively developing increasingly refined degrees of mental and physical concentration. There are a number of other objects that can be employed for this purpose, and these are described in great detail in the meditation manual Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purification) by Buddhaghosa i(5th century CE (Common Era)).

2) Vipassana (insight)

This practice follows on upon the preceding discipline of concentration, and is intended to employ the capacity of a more regulated mind, and with the resultant mental clarity thus developed, to penetrate and realise by a variety of means the truth of the Buddha's teaching on the nature of reality. Thus, in one form or another, the three characteristics of being, of unsatisfactoriness, of impermanence, and of insubstantiality, may be intently examined with a mind "purified" of distraction, and to such an extent that the true mind, the Dharma mind, may finally emerge. The resultant insight, or wisdom, is of a quality such that a series of revolutions are produced within the psyche, which results in a transformation of the whole being. It is not such much an acquisition of knowledge but rather a "realisation" of these truths, which leads finally to the abandoning of delusion, final liberation from suffering and from the round of samsaric existence; the attainment of an Awakening or Enlightenment: Nirvana.

The Major Buddhist Traditions

A) Theravada

B) Mahayana:

1) Chan/Zen
2) Pure Land
3) Nichiren
4) Shingon
5) Tendai

C) Vajrayana